Maat or Maʽat (Egyptian: mꜣꜥt /ˈmuʀʕat/, Coptic: ⲙⲉⲓ)[1] comprised the ancient Egyptian concepts of truth, balance, order, harmony, law, morality, and justice. Ma'at was also the goddess who personified these concepts, and regulated the stars, seasons, and the actions of mortals and the deities who had brought order from chaos at the moment of creation. Her ideological opposite was Isfet (Egyptian jzft), meaning injustice, chaos, violence or to do evil.
Pronunciation[edit]
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Cuneiform texts indicate that the word m3ˤt was pronounced /múʔʕa/ during the New Kingdom of Egypt, having lost the feminine ending t.[4] Vowel assimilation of u to e later produced the Coptic word ⲙⲉⲉ/ⲙⲉ "truth, justice".[5]
History[edit]
The earliest surviving records indicating that Maat is the norm for nature and society, in this world and the next, were recorded during the Old Kingdom of Egypt, the earliest substantial surviving examples being found in the Pyramid Texts of Unas (ca. 2375 BCE and 2345 BCE).[6]
Later, when most goddesses were paired with a male aspect, her masculine counterpart was Thoth, as their attributes are similar. In other accounts, Thoth was paired off with Seshat, goddess of writing and measure, who is a lesser-known deity.
After her role in creation and continuously preventing the universe from returning to chaos, her primary role in ancient Egyptian religion dealt with the Weighing of the Heart that took place in the Duat.[7] Her feather was the measure that determined whether the souls (considered to reside in the heart) of the departed would reach the paradise of the afterlife successfully. In other versions, Maat was the feather as the personification of truth, justice, and harmony.[8]
Pharaohs are often depicted with the emblems of Maat to emphasise their roles in upholding the laws and righteousness.[9] From the Eighteenth Dynasty (c. 1550 – 1295 BC) Maat was described as the daughter of Ra, indicating that pharaohs were believed to rule through her authority.[8]
Goddess[edit]
Maat was the goddess of harmony, justice, and truth represented as a young woman.[10] Sometimes she is depicted with wings on each arm or as a woman with an ostrich feather on her head.[3] The meaning of this emblem is uncertain, although the god Shu, who in some myths is Maat's brother, also wears it.[11] Depictions of Maat as a goddess are recorded from as early as the middle of the Old Kingdom (c. 2680 to 2190 BCE).[12]
The sun-god Ra came from the primaeval mound of creation only after he set his daughter Maat in place of isfet (chaos). Kings inherited the duty to ensure Maat remained in place, and they with Ra are said to "live on Maat", with Akhenaten (r. 1372–1355 BCE) in particular emphasising the concept to a degree that the king's contemporaries viewed as intolerance and fanaticism.[13] Some kings incorporated Maat into their names, being referred to as Lords of Maat,[14] or Meri-Maat (Beloved of Maat).
Maat had a central role in the ceremony of the Weighing of the Heart, where the decedent's heart was weighed against her feather.
Principle[edit]
Maat represents the ethical and moral principle that all Egyptian citizens were expected to follow throughout their daily lives. They were expected to act with honor and truth in matters that involve family, the community, the nation, the environment, and the gods.[15]
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Maat as a principle was formed to meet the complex needs of the emergent Egyptian state that embraced diverse peoples with conflicting interests.[16] The development of such rules sought to avert chaos and it became the basis of Egyptian law. From an early period the king would describe himself as the "Lord of Maat" who decreed with his mouth the Maat he conceived in his heart.
The significance of Maat developed to the point that it embraced all aspects of existence, including the basic equilibrium of the universe, the relationship between constituent parts, the cycle of the seasons, heavenly movements, religious observations and good faith, honesty, and truthfulness in social interactions.[16]
The ancient Egyptians had a deep conviction of an underlying holiness and unity within the universe. Cosmic harmony was achieved by correct public and ritual life. Any disturbance in cosmic harmony could have consequences for the individual as well as the state. An impious king could bring about famine, and blasphemy could bring blindness to an individual.[17] In opposition to the right order expressed in the concept of Maat is the concept of Isfet: chaos, lies and violence.[18]
In addition, several other principles within ancient Egyptian law were essential, including an adherence to tradition as opposed to change, the importance of rhetorical skill and the significance of achieving impartiality and "righteous action". In one Middle Kingdom (2062 to c.1664 BCE) text, the creator declares "I made every man like his fellow". Maat called the rich to help the less fortunate rather than exploit them, echoed in tomb declarations: "I have given bread to the hungry and clothed the naked" and "I was a husband to the widow and father to the orphan".[19]
To the Egyptian mind, Maat bound all things together in an indestructible unity: the universe, the natural world, the state, and the individual were all seen as parts of the wider order generated by Maat.
A passage in the Instruction of Ptahhotep presents Maat as follows:
Law[edit]
There is little surviving literature that describes the practice of ancient Egyptian law. Maat was the spirit in which justice was applied rather than the detailed legalistic exposition of rules. Maat represented the normal and basic values that formed the backdrop for the application of justice that had to be carried out in the spirit of truth and fairness. From the Fifth Dynasty (c. 2510–2370 BCE) onwards, the vizier responsible for justice was called the Priest of Maat and in later periods judges wore images of Maat.[21]
Later scholars and philosophers also would embody concepts from the Sebayt, a native wisdom literature. These spiritual texts dealt with common social or professional situations, and how each was best to be resolved or addressed in the spirit of Maat. It was very practical advice, and highly case-based, so few specific and general rules could be derived from them.[22]
During the Greek period in Egyptian history, Greek law existed alongside Egyptian law. The Egyptian law preserved the rights of women, who were allowed to act independently of men and own substantial personal property, and in time, this influenced the more restrictive conventions of the Greeks and Romans.[23] When the Romans took control of Egypt, the Roman legal system, which existed throughout the Roman Empire, was imposed in Egypt.
Scribes and scribal school[edit]
Scribes[edit]
The ethical aspect of Maat gave rise to the social formation of groups of elite individuals called sesh referring to intellectuals, scribes, or bureaucrats.[24] Besides serving as the civil servant of the kingdom, the sesh had a central role in the society since the ethical and moral concepts of Maat were further formulated, promoted, and maintained by these individuals.[24] Scribes in particular held prestigious positions in ancient Egyptian society as they were a primary means for the transmission of religious, political, and commercial information.[25]
Although few were formally literate, writing was an important part of citizens' lives in Ancient Egypt, and scribes, for the large part, carried out literate functions for large masses of individuals. Since everyone was taxed, for example, their contributions were recorded by scribes. During periods of natural disasters, additionally, scribes worked on distant assignments, which were often in the form of letters. These letters were written and read by scribes for those who were not literate which enabled communication with superiors and families.[26]
Written texts were often read aloud in public by scribes, who also wrote most of the letters, regardless of the sender's writing ability. Thus, scribes were involved in both writing and reading the letters.[27] Since scribes read the letters out loud in public, they could not use the first person to present the king's voice. Thus, the texts were presented in the third person grammatical structure.[28] However, much of ancient Egyptian writing was symbolic and operated on a much deeper level than narratives might suggest.[29] Religious concerns, as well as the hierarchical structure of Ancient Egyptian society, created important distinctions between elite classes and everyone else. The political and ideological interests of the elite dominated and directed the majority of social and cultural life in Ancient Egypt.[24] Rhetoric has also been acknowledged as playing a role in the maintenance of social hierarchies, with its priorities of maintaining harmony and social order.[30]
Illiterate people had a priority to get scribes to their villages because this procedure allowed the government to limit excessive abuses by pointing out the importance of the complaints of the poor. Scribal instructional texts emphasize fair treatment of all peoples and how anyone who abuses their power is subject to punishment.[31] Although this procedure was regulated by the local government, it helped provide the poor with the feeling that their petitions were put before higher officials' requests.[32] Although the main responsibility of scribes was to compose the work, transfer it or communicate, some scribes added additional commentary. The scribe's role in judicial system should also be taken into consideration. Local and insignificant crimes were usually led by a scribe or a foreman during the trial.[32]
Thoth was the patron of scribes who is described as the one "who reveals Maat and reckons Maat; who loves Maat and gives Maat to the doer of Maat".[33] In texts such as the Instruction of Amenemope the scribe is urged to follow the precepts of Maat in his private life as well as his work.[34] The exhortations to live according to Maat are such that these kinds of instructional texts have been described as "Maat Literature".[35]
Scribal schools[edit]
Scribal schools emerged during the Middle Kingdom Era (2060 – 1700 BCE).[36] Although scribal practices had been implemented before this period, there is no evidence of "systematic schooling" occurring in a materialized institution during the Old Kingdom (2635 – 2155 BCE).[36] Scribal schools were designed to transform people to the literate sesh or scribes who could function for society and bureaucracy. Therefore, literacy among ancient Egyptians revolved around the mastery of writing and reading in their specific purposes of conducting administration.[29]
In scribal schools, students were selectively chosen based on the same date of birth around Egypt.[37] Most of the apprentice scribes were boys, but some privileged girls received similar instruction as the boys in the scribal schools.[38] They could either live at school with their peers or stay with their parents, depending on geographical adjacency.[39] The students were taught two types of writing by their teachers who were priests: sacred writing and instructive writing.[37] Sacred writing emphasized Maat and its moral as well as ethical values and instructions, while instructive writing covered specific discussion about land-measurement and arithmetic for evaluating the annual changes of river and land configurations;[37] as well as for calculating tax, logging commercial business, and distributing supply.[40]
Learning instructions in scribal schools were available for very young prospective students (5–10 years old students).[39] This elementary instruction took 4 years to complete, and then, they could become apprentices of a tutor - an advanced level of education that elevated their scribal careers.[39][41] In the elementary level, pupils received instructions from the tutors while sitting in circle around the tutors.[41] The lessons were implemented in different fashions: reading was recited aloud or chanted, arithmetic was studied mutely, and writing was practiced by copying classical short literacy and the Miscellanies, a short composition specifically aimed to teach writing.[42][43]
When learning writing, scribal apprentices were required to go over sequential steps. They firstly had to memorize a brief passage by chanted recital following the teachers. Later on, they were asked to copy some paragraphs to train their writing abilities, either on ostraca or wooden tablets. Once the instructors deemed the pupil had made some progress, they would assign the same first two steps toward Middle Egyptian manuscripts, consisting of classical work and instructions. After that, the same methods were implemented to Middle Egyptian texts, in which grammar and vocabulary took the most part.[40]
Besides honing reading, writing, and arithmetic skills, students of scribal schools also learned other skills. Male students were involved in physical training, while female students were asked to practice singing, dancing, and musical instruments.[38]
Maat as rhetorical concept[edit]
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Although little mythology survives concerning the goddess Maat, she was the daughter of the Egyptian Sun god Ra; and the wife of Thoth, the god of wisdom who invented writing, which directly connects Maat to ancient Egyptian rhetoric.[44] Maat (which is associated with solar, lunar, astral, and the river Nile's movements) is a concept based on humanity's attempt to live in a natural harmonic state.[45] Maat is associated with the judgment of the deceased and whether a person has done what is right in their life.[46] Thus, to do Maat was to act in a manner unreproachable or inculpable.[45] So revered was the concept of Maat that Egyptian kings would often pay tribute to gods, offering small statues of Maat, indicating that they were successfully upholding the universal order: the interconnection among the cosmic, divine, natural, and human realms.[45] When rhetors are attempting to achieve balance in their arguments, they are practicing Maat.
George Kennedy, a history of rhetoric scholar, defines rhetoric as the transmission of emotion and thought through a system of symbols, including words, to influence the emotions and thoughts of others.[47] Maat sought to influence its audience to action as well. Scholars have closely examined this relationship between ancient Egyptian rhetoric and the concept of Maat,[48] using three specific areas: 1) ancient Egyptian texts that actually taught Maat; 2) ancient Egyptian letter writing that embodied the performance of Maat; 3) ancient Egyptian letter writing that used Maat as persuasion[48]
Maat in ancient Egyptian texts[edit]
The Egyptian elite learned how to be part of the elite class through instructions text, such as The Instructions of Ptahhotep, that used Maat as the basis of concrete principles and guidelines for effective rhetoric. A passage from Ptahhotep presents Maat as instruction:
Another passage emphasizes the importance of Maat and how wisdom was also to be found among the women at the grindstones[50]
The lesson learned through Maat here is beneficence: the reader is advised to be benevolent and kind. An even stronger argument is being made – if you do not feed people, they will become unruly; on the other hand, if you take care of your people, they will take care of your memorial or tomb[51] The excerpt from Phahhotep employs Maat to teach the reader how to be a more effective king. The Tale of The Eloquent Peasant is an extended discourse on the nature of Maat[31] in which an officer under the direction of the King is described as taking the wealth of a nobleman and giving it to a poor man he had abused.[52] Another text describes how the divine King:
Performance of Maat in ancient Egyptian letters[edit]
Letter writing became a significant part of the daily function of ancient Egyptian citizens[54] It became the means of communication between superiors and families; thus, Egyptians became incessant letter writers.[55] Letters were not merely "mailed" to their recipients; they were performed by scribes who often wrote them on behalf of a king.[56] Since language is the basis by which a community identifies itself and others,[57] the scribes would perform Maat to build upon a community's language to become more persuasive.
Persuasion of Maat in ancient Egyptian letters[edit]
James Herrick states that the major objective of rhetoric is for a rhetor to persuade (to alter) an audience's view to that of the rhetor; for example, an attorney uses rhetoric to persuade a jury that his/her client is innocent of a crime.[58] Maat in letters written to subordinates to persuade allegiance to them and the pharaoh; subordinates would evoke Maat to illustrate a desire to please.[59] To directly disagree with a superior was considered highly inappropriate; instead, inferior citizens would indirectly evoke Maat to assuage a superior's ego to achieve the desired outcome.[59]
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